State Educational Governance through a standard setting; the use of teacher competency testing for teacher certification

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- 1 STATE EDUCATIONAL GOVERNANCE THROUGH STANDARD-SETTING:

THE USE OF TEACHER COHPETE11CY TESTTIJG FOR TEACHER CERTIFICATION

RESEARCH OBJECTIVES

The proposed study will examine how state-mandated use of teacher competency tests for teacher certi fication af fects the preparation, supply, and composition of the prospective teaching force. The research will seek to ascertain how the use of testing as a state certification requirement changes state and local actions regarding teacher selection and preparation. We expect to see changes in teacher selection and preparation decisions on the part of state and local education agencies, s chools of edu cation, accreditation agenCies, and state standard-setting agencies. By surveying schools of education and local school districts in five states that currently use the NTE or state-developed tests for teacher certification, we will seek to dis cover how this state mandate a f fects the characteristics of the prospective teaching force, the curriculum in schools of education, and the supply of candidates to individual school districts. Interviews with state- level policymakers, accredi tation and" certi fication agency of ficials, and deans of teacher education programs will investigate how a standard that is set by the state affects decision criteria and the balance of control among these 1nstitutions
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Statement of the Problem Over the past decade, a variety of state initiatives have attempted to improve the quality of education which school districts deliver . . These initiatives have ranged from school accountability legislation to minimal competency testing and, recently, increased course requi rements for students. These state-level actions, however, have not confrontd the central problem in the delivery of educational services--the quality of teaching in our schools and c lassrooms. One important aspect of this prob lem is the quality of teachers attracted and admitted to the occupation. Teaching was once a relatively attractive occupation drawing to it white men who valued security, talented women who had few other career options, and professionally-oriented black men and women who were barred from other fields. While teaching ay never have attracted most academically able of young people, some recent studies have found that tne academic ability of new entrants is dec lining (Weaver, 1979; Vance and S chlecty, 1982). There are many explanations for this trend. Declining school enrOllments created a surplus of teachers, thus discouraging new entrants. New career opportunities began to open to The low public image of teaching and declining all social groups. teachers' salaries (in real terms) combined to discourage talented young people from conSidering teaching. '

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State governments have begun to be concerned about the ability of The concern is a natural one, for states new entrants into teaching. have a long-established role in controlling ac cess to teaching since individual school districts have di fficulty forcing change in teacher preparation practices. In this area, as in most others, states can draw upon only a limited repertoire of policy tools to achieve their ends. Teacher preparation occurs in schools of education that are not directly under the control of state officials. Accrediting associations serve as generally weak controls over the content and quality of education offered in these schools. And hiring decisions are made by local boards of edUCation. Thus, to affect the quality of new entrants to teaching, states must use tools that influence the decisions of schools of education, school systems, or individual teacher candidates. States may increase funds to school districts for upgrading salaries or funds to s chools of education for improving teacher training. They may regulate school districts or schools of edu cation by imposing program approval or certification standards. Each of these policy tools is intended to constrain or determine decisions by other educational organizations. Each is based upon a number of assumptions and theories about organizational and individual behav ior and about the process of education. Recently a growing number of states have turned to tests as a meanS of selecting pre-service teacher candidates. In 1 97 7 , at least 23 states were USing the National Teacher Examinations (NTE) for purposes ranging from obtaining statewide data t9 validating credits earned at non-accredited institutions. Ey 1 9 80 , at least seven states were using the NTE for certification purposes (Lewis, 1 97 9; Vlaanderen, 1 980 ) . Some states have developed their own tests of teacher competency for certi fication, while others are currently considering licensing teachers based in part on statewide examinations prior to certi fication (Southern Regional Education Eoard, 1 97 9; M cNeil, 1 9 81 ; Killian, Wood, and Eell, 1 9 80)
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Teacher competency testing is one outcome of a growing frustration with efforts to change the character of teacher education. As a .senior member of the education establishment recently proc laimed on the cover of ihi Delta Kappan magazine, Let' s face it: Colleges of pedagogy will in all probability never overhaul their programs i f each college is to do it alone. There are too many hurdles, too much disparity among institutions, too much institut ional jealousy, too much divisiveness and lethargy among faculties, too much fear, and too much ineptness in the leadership. It is likely, of course, that one or two institutions will blaze a new path. But will others follow'? Well, maybe. We won' t know until It is more probable, however, some college really does it. that only forces broader and more powerful than those of a single college can ever break through these barriers and

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restraints to bring about a new day in pedagogical education. These forces will be political as well as professional, external to col leges and universities, and guided by a new coalition of professional and lay organizations and their leaders. (Smith, 1980) State-level policymakers, concerned with what they regard as inadequate teacher preparation, have begun to impose the NTE and other tests as a condition of teacher certi fication. At least two states (Florida and Alabama) have made the continued approval of a school of education contingent upon the percentage of the school' s graduates passing the statewide test. These policymakers have apparently despaired of improving the quality of schools of education through trad itional means. They do not trust schools of education to graduate only those teacher candidates who are fit to teach. They do not trust the natioP1 ac creditation process to upgrade the quality of teacher education nor do they trust their own program approval processes. They view teacher. competency testing as an instrument to prevent those unfit to teach from teaching. At the same time, it is a mechanism for exerting pressure on schools of education. After all, The idea of making teachers pass a test has popular appeal. no lawyer, doctor, or accountant can become a member of the profession without passing an examination. Indeed, 85 percent of citizens answering the Gallup Poll in 1979 agreed that teachers should be requi red to pass a stat\ board examination and then t ested periodically to keep up to date with their field (Cronin, 1983). The idea of a test, in .general, and the NTE, in particular, has substantial ap peal:
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It is objective, thus removing discretionary decisions from both the state bureaucracy and the education establishment, particularly the providers of teacher training. It is clear-cut. Unlike the standards involved in accreditation, which are vague, and unlike competency-based teacher certi fication, which is cumbersome, it yields a score. It is not costly, at least not costly to the state. No infusions of capital into teacher training are required. The minor costs (test fees) are borne by the teacher candidates as well as the major costs (the cancellation of one' s career plans after four years of college) . It is symbolically important. In a tangible way, it demonstrates that the state is attending to the problem of low teacher qual ity
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It is measurable. It permits the state to assess and describe the performance of schools of education and c lasses of teacher candida tes. It can be said to be unintrusive. The state can claim that it is not prescribing the behavior of schools of education, school districts, or teacher candidates. More direct regulatory moves m ight be reSisted on the grounds of "academic freedom, " " local control," or "institutional autonomy. " The requirement has face validity and surface plausibility. Few will object to teachers being required to demonstrate what they are expected to know. The idea that such know ledge is "necessary if not suf fficient" is very persuasive. Finally, in the case of the NTE, the test has been sanctioned both by the most prestigious testing organization in the nation and by a board of experts who advise that organization on the NTE.

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The choice of this policy tool by state governments is important for several reasons. First, the decision to use a statewide test with a . standardized cutof f score for certification affects teacher supply across the state. This policy may support or complicate a local district' s hiring task by helping to screen potential applicants, on the one hand, or by preventing access to the profession for some potential teachers whom districts m ight want to hire, on the other. Tighter state standards for certi fication shifts procedural control over teacher selection away from local school districts and, perhaps, away from school of education accreditation agencies as well. This governance change may standardize teacher preparation and selection practices ( for be tter or worse) or it may have little immediate ef fect on these practices. In either case, there are likely to be a number of second-order consequences. State standard-setting alters the distribution of power and responsibility over decisiormaking by applying a new criterion that constrains or determines the actions of lower level policymakers. The new patterns of influence that emerge from such a policy generally affect other policy decisions as well by strengthening the capacities of some institutions while weakening those of others. Finally, the use of teacher competency tests for certification means that substantive control of entry into the teaching profession is, in a sense, removed from members of the profession, schools of education, school districts, and state governments alike. Although state officials may confer with teacher representatives or school of educa tion heads to set cutof f scores, the know ledge expected of teacher candidates is determined by the Educational Testing Service (in the case The assumptions underlying the of the NTE) or other test developers. test- making process about epucational theory, practice, and the relation between theory and practice become standards for entry. These

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- 5 standards, unlike those of other professions, are not set by practitioners. They may or may not be consistent with other standards set by state policymakers through the program approval or certi fication processes. The lack of involvement in substantive standard-setting of these actors may, on the one hand, depoliticize the teacher selection process and thereby add credibility to the outcomes of the process. On the other hand, it may produce outcomes that are at variance with other state or local goals for education or for the composition of the teaching force. Contribution of the Research This study will add to our understanding of the ef fects on educational institutions (s chools of education and school districts) of state-level standard-setting in the area of teacher certi fication. It will examine how teacher competency tests for certi fication.influence teacher preparation in schools of edu cation, selection of teacher candida tes by schools of education and schoof districts, and the supJjly of teachers to school districts. The study will also explore the interactions between certification standards and other state policies governing teacher preparation and selection (e.g., state approval of -teacher education. programs and state requirements af fecting the training and compc.∑sition of the teaching force, such as school district course offerings which teachers must be prepared to teach) . Despite the potentially dramatic effects of teacher competency testing on teacher supply and on the quality and composition of the teaching force, no study of this kind has yet been undertaken. Most of the reporting on this topic has appeared in the popular press. Individual states have conducted validation studies for some of the tests, and tabulations of pass/fail rates have been prepared. The Southern Regional Education Board is currently preparing a report on teacher competency testing (to be completed in June 1983 ) that will discuss failure rates and validity questions; however, a systematic investigation of ef fects on schools of education and s chool districts is beyond the scope of their report.[1] Our study wil l fill a gap in the current knowledge base concerning the intended and unintended ef fects of this state policy tool for upgrading teacher quality. The study is especially important and timely as increasing numbers of states are considering the introduction of teacher competency testing.

[1] Also, William Harris of the Educational Testing Service, who is responsible for administration of the NTE, reported in a recent telephone conversation that he knew of no major studies of the effects of the NTE currently being conducted.

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Research Questions The study will be guided by t wo main research questions:
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How has teacher competency testing affected teacher preparation?

How has teacher competency testing af fected the supply of teachers to school districts? The answer to each of these questions requires two levels of evidence: evidence of changes in preparation or supply and evidence that illuminates the reasons or mediating factors for these outcomes.
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With respect to teacher preparation, we will examine changes in admission standards, curriculum, counselling, retention and graduation standards. We will as certain whether school of education decisionmakers attribute these changes to teacher competency testing or to other factors, and whether the changes have resulted from internal or external evaluation of the programs. We will examine how teacher competency test results are used by s chool of education deans and officials of accrediting or approval agencies to make decisions about program content, standards, or requirements.
Our investigation of teacher supply to school districts will inc lude evidence about the supply of different types of teachers (by subject matter certi fication, educational background, race, etc.) to school districts with different supply and demand characteristics (e.g., location, size of district, labor market characteristics, enrollment trends). We will ascertain whether school district decisionmakers attribute suPply. effects and perceptions of applicant quality to the existence of the competency tests or to other fact ors, and whether perceived ef fects have triggered other changes in their selection processes.

In the next sections of this proposal, we present our conceptual framework for examining these questions and a dis cussion of our proposed methodology.

CONCEPTUAL FRAiORK
Our goal is to examine the effects of state-mandated use of teacher competency tests for teacher certification on teacher preparation and supply. The effects on teacher preparation and supply are mediated, of course, by s chools of education and they are mani fest in school districts. In order to understand these effects, we must take into account the broader context in which the tests operate. This context, the speci fics of which will vary from state to state, are described with reference to Figure 1.

The process begins with the college and career planning o f an age cohort of young people intending to attend college. They move through a stream of personal decisions and institutional selection decisions which

Exogenous

Factors

Endogenous Factors

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r Size
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of K-l2 population

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Size and scope of educatioal programs (K-l2)
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Conditions and policies affecting college attendance Size of college-age cohort Occupational opportunity structure

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Supply of potential teacher candidates
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Perceived attractiveness of 'teaching (salaries, working conditions, etc.)

Control Accreditation Program approval
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State Policies
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Teacher Preparation
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Admissions standards Curriculum/grading procedures Counselling and retention standards Graduation requirements

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Standards Financing Regulations . Program mandates

Individual Quality Control Course requirements Competency tests

Teachers migrating from other states

Certification. School District Characteristics Salaries Working conditions Selection practices

School District Characteristics Location Student population Enrollment trends Proximity to teacher education institu
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Supply of Teachers Number, quality, and composition of certified teaching force

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Fig. l--Factors influencing teacher preparation and supply

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result in some of them becoming teachers. These personal and institutional decisions are af fected by a set of exogenous factors and The exogenous factors are those over which state e ndogenous factors. educational policymakers have no control. The endogenous factors are those which are or could be affected by state-level policymakers. The first determinant of the supply of teacher candidates is the size of an age cohort potentially available to be come teachers. Nationwide the size of the pool of 18 to 21 year olds has ranged from 14. 7 mil lion in 1970 to 17.1 million in 1980 to a projected 14.6 mil lion in 1989. Consequently, we can antiCipate some decline in supply due to a shrinking supply of eligibles. The size of the potential pool is further determined by the percentage of the cohort attending college. The second determinant of the supply of teacher candidates is the anti cipated demand for teachers. The school-age population has shrunk from 5 2.6 million in 1970 to 45 .9 million in 1980; by 1989, the projected population will have decreased to 33 million (U. S. Department of Commerce, Current Population Reports). Thus, nationwide we may expect a decrease in over-all demand for teachers, assuming that the teacher-student ratio remains roughly constant. Demand af fects supply in two ways: (1) by influencing students' career decisions based on their assessed probabilities of getting a job, and (2) by affecting wage rates (one element of the attractiveness of a profession to academical ly . talented candidates). The third determinant of the supply of teacher candidates is the This variable is a complex perceived attractiveness of teaching. function of salary and other factors. In real terms, average teacher salary has declined from $6, 8 21 in 1966-67 t o $6, 769 in 1982-83 (National Education AssOCiation, 1982-83) . The decline has, of course, occurred during a decade of teacher surplus. Other factors which af fect the attractiveness of teaching range from career alternatives available to prospective∑ teachers to class size to the esteem with which teachers are viewed. The latter may be af fected, in the long run, by how easy or hard it is to become a teacher. In a general way, these factors determine the supply of potential teacher candidates. A varie of external policies also af fect the supply of and demand for teachers. The availability of student aid increases the supply of college graduates. Since a large fraction of college graduates are potential teachers (Vance and Schlecty, 1982), the more student aid is available, the greater the supply of teacher candidates. Federal programs have been used to prepare teachers in vocational, career, bilingual, special, and reading education, while categorical programs for students have created a demand for particular types of teachers. The National Defense Educa t{on Act of , 95 8 deliberately set out to increase the suPply of SCience, mathematics, and foreign language teachers. Some legislation has indirect e f fects. One of the most important pieces of legislation to increase the supply of teachers was the provision granting exemption from the military draft to young men who were teachers. Other legislation has a symbolic effect. Modest

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- 9 categorical programs (e.g., energy education" environmental education) probably signal an emerging need and thus induce some young people to prepare to teach in these areas. Judicial rulings, federal and state, may increase demand for personnel. Early court rulings mandating the provision of education to handicapped students began to create demand for special education teachers. Court orders mandating desegregated faculties may create demand for m inority personnel. Court orders mandating school finance reform may increase the discretionary revenue to some school districts, thus increasing the demand for teachers.
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State legislation can have a dramatic ef fect on the demand for teachers. In the first place, state aid legislation helps to determine overall budget; since 70-80 percent of school budgets are personnel costs, the overall budget shapes the potential size of teacher demand. Legislation that mandates specific subject-matter requirements creates demand. Legislation that regulates class size or teacher-pupil ratio hapes demand. On the other hand, legislation which increases or decreases the ease of certi fication strongly af fects supply. All of these supply and demand factors influence the number and type of students entering the teacher education process. Although not shown on the figure, there are several selection decisions. These are ad m ission to college, to teacher preparation, to student teaching, and the recommendation for initial certi fication (Schalock, 1979, p. 364 ) . While these decisions af fect supply, presumably decreasing it at each stage, other forces are endeavoring to increase the quality of the prospective teachers. The teacher education program is af fected by several agencies whose function it is to control program quality. The college or university of which the teacher education program is a part is subject to the regional accreditation process. If the teacher education program participates in NCATE review, as do about 4 0 to 5 0 percent, it must meet a number of additional standards. Most states operate a program approval process which requires teacher education programs to meet state standards. Teacher education programs are also influenced to conform to regulations which control the content of school district curricula because they must prepare teachers to teach required courses or mandated programs. The graduates of teacher education programs then meet the states! standards for certification and licensing. In this study, we will examine how teacher competency tests for certification affect schools of eduation by virtue of their presece as an additional standard and/or by their ef fects on the program approval or accreditation processes. The tests directly increase the standards for individual certi fication. In addition, however, they may also affect the other quality control mechanisms which, in turn, will affect schools of education and s chool districts. Thus, for example, performance on the test may become one of the criteria which is examined by NCATE or by the program approval process.

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- 10 As will be descr'ibed in substantial detail below, we will exam ine the direct and indirect effects of teacher competency tests upon the practices of schools of education. We will ascertain ef fects upon admission standards, curriculum, and graduation standards. We will attempt to discover effects upon supply and upon quality as measured by _the tests and as perceived by teacher edu cators and employers. We will examine the direct and indirect effects of the NTE upon school districts. We will ascertain effects upon teacher supply (e.g., in various fields) , upon teacher quality (as perceived by directors of personnel) , and upon the mix of teachers (e.g., race) . These effects may vary for school districts of different types. Demographic and locational factors make some districts more attractive to teachers. Salary, working conditions, and the ability of district management will ameliorate or exacerbate problems associated with recruitment. Finally, the state can af fect the hiring ability of local districts not only by controlling teacher quality and supply but by directly affecting locally available finances and working conditions. Finally, there may be effects of competency tests on the , perceived attractiveness of teaching. By altering the pub lic image of teaching and by decreasing teacher supply, the tests may lead to increases in salaries or other attractions to teaching. Because the tests may introdu ce greater selectivity in entry to the occupation of teaching, the pub lic, and in turn, prospective teacher candidates may perceive an increase in the attractiveness of teaching. This could increase the supply of (high quality) teachers. Because the use of tests' as a certi fication device is fairly recent, this effect may be barely percepti ble by the time of the st,udy and we do not expect to be able to track it within the time and resources of the study.
Effects of Teacher Competency Testing

The NTE and other state-developed tests of teacher competency comprise only one element of an array of state policies designed to upgrade teacher quality. Many states have tried to influence the quality of the teaching force by upgrading standards for admission to teacher edu cation institutions, by changing course requirements for graduation, and by changing the requirements for continuing certification as well. As Table 1 indicates, states have instituted tests for admission to schools of education, lengthened the term of student teaching, added internships, and/or required performance assessments prior to permanent certification in addition to testing for in1 tial certi fication.
All of these actions variously affect the supply of teacher candidates and the character of teacher preparation. We will endeavor to sort out the differential and convergent effects of these policies. It is already clear, however, that the competency tests themselves are having important effects.

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Table 1 STATES REQUIRING TESTING FOR CERTIFICATION Year Enacted (Effective)

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State

Authority SBE Legislature Legislature Legislature Legislature

Type of Test State/NTE State NTE State* State

Other Requirements

Alabama Arizona Arkansas Colorado Florida

1980 (1981) 1980 (1980) 1979 (1983) 1981 (1983) 1978 (1980)

(1) Nationa11y-normed standardized test for SCDE admission; (2) criterion-referenced test for initia certification; (3) one year internship or 3 years successful teaching before certification

Georgia

SBE

1979 (1979)

State

(1) Teaching competency assessment during student teaching; (2) criterion-referenced test for initial certification; (3) inservice performance assessment before final certification (Ellett, Capie. and John 1980)
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Louisiana

Legislature

1979 (1979)

NTE

(1) NTE for initial certification; (2) inservice perfor,mance assessment before permanent certificati (SREB, 1979) . (1) Competency test for initial certification; (2) one year internship before final certification (Hathaway, 1980) . (1) Achievement test for admission to SCDE; (2) student teaching evaluation; (3) NTE for initial certification; (4) inservice continuing education and performance assessment (Lewis, 1979) . (1) Minimum GPA for admission to SCDE; (2) competer exam before graduation; (3) one year internship be fore certification; (4) participation in staff devE opment for continuing certification (Kleine and Wisnie\.J'ski, 1981) .

Mississippi New York

SBE SBE

1977 (1977) 1980 (1984)

NTE State

North Carolina

SBE

1979 (1981)

NTE/State

Oklahoma

Legislature

1980 (1982)

State

Table 1 (cont.)
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State South Carolina

Authority Legislature

Year Enacted (Effective) 1979 (1982)

Type of Test NTE/State

Other Requirements

(1) Basic skills test for admission to SCDE; (2) full semester of student teaching; (3) NTE supple mented by state tests for initial certification; (4) inservice performance assessment; (5) continu ing education for recertification (McDaniel, 1981).

Tennessee Texas Virginia West Virginia NOTE:

SBE SBE/Legislature Legislature SBE

1980 (1981) 1980-81 (1981) 1980 (1980) 1961 (1964)

NTE State NTE NTE

SBE = State Board of Education NTE = National Teacher Examinations SeDE = School, college, or department of educa.tion

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Basic skills test only. Education Commission of the States, Issuegram, August 1981, supplemented by other sources as noted
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- 13 One important, direct effect of teacher competency testing is to decrease the supply of teachers, especially the supply of minority teaching candidates. In 1 982, 83 percent of Florida's prospective teachers passed the state's criterion-referenced test for certi fication; only 3 5 percent of black applicants passed the test (Toch, 1 983 ) . Sixty-six percent of Louisiana's 1 978 teaching candidates passed the NTE; however, only 4 percent of applicants from black pubic colleges and 26 percent from black private institutions passed the test (SREB, 1979) . When South Carolina raised the NTE cutof f score, in the late 1970s, about half of the state's graduates failed the test. At some b lack colleges, the failure rate reached 1 00 percent (SREB, 1979) . Recent statistics on Alabama's and Arizona's state-developed tests show similar patterns. Failure rates on the Alabama tests for different f ields of certification range from 7 to 28 percent for white candidates, and from 5 1 to 52 percent for black candidates. In Arizona, 74 percent of black and Native American candidates failed the state's 1 982 test; compared to 5 9 percent of Hispanic and 25 percent of white candidates (ToCh, 1983 ) . The decrease in supply of teachers has led to teacher shortages in some of these states and to countervailing actions like the issuance of interim or provisional certi ficates to offset the supply effects of the tests (SRES, 1 979) . School districts in Florida, Georgia, and Louisiana recruit many of their teachers from out of state, while many positions in Louisiana are filled by uncerti fied personnel. In South Carolina, several thousand teachers teach outside of their fields of certification (Galambos, 1980; Florida Education Standards Commission, 1982; Louisiana State Department of Education, 1982; Wool ford et al., 1982) . Harris (1982) estimates that the shortfall of several thousand teachers annually in Texas will reach crisis proportions by 1985 . The differential failure rates for b lack and white teacher candidates have also spurred a new round of lawsuits against states. Despite the U.S. Supreme Court ruling in .!l. .s.. Y.,.. South Carolina (1978) upholding the constitutionality of the NTE for certi fication purposes, SUits pending in Florida, Alabama, and North Carolina are challenging the use of the tests on the grounds that they intentionally discriminate against black applicants. These lawsuits will undoubtedly involve questions about the validity of the tests as measures of teacher competence as well as questions about the appropriateness of other uses of the test. Both Florida and Alabama, f.;)r example, have enacted provisions making state approval of teacher education i,nstitutions contingent' on graduates' performance on the competency tests.
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Other state uses of teacher test resul ts suggest that the competency tests will inf luence the content of the curriculum in teacher education institutions. North Carolina, Tennessee, and Virginia are using NTE results for statewide studies of teacher education (ETS, 1982) . In South Carolina, teacher education institutions are required to use NTE results as part of their own in-house evaluation process. One objective of this study is to discover to what extent and in what ways teacher competency tests influe nce the content of teacher education either directly or through the state approval/accreditation process.

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- 14 Commentaries on the state of the art of teacher education program review methods emphasize the difficulty of setting standards and criteria. As Koff and Florio ( 1977) remark of teacher education accreditation standards: [A] ccreditation as a quality control procedure is hardly an exact science. Every profession is responsible for developing a definition of quality that takes into consideration the complexities of the field it services. Education is not uniquely culpable, although the problem of accrediting SCDEs [schools, colleges, and departments of education] is particularly complex for four interrelated reasons. First, there is no clear consensus concerning educational goals. Second, there are substantive ,problems in relating educational outcomes t o the characteristics of professional educators. Third, there are no clear connections between training strategies and the characteristics of educators. Fourth, power politics have made it difficult to deal with the fundamental questions aSSOCiated with accrediting policy (pp.

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Many know ledgeable scholars and practitioners have questioned the utility of accreditation and state program approval because of the lack of both uni formity and rigor in the criteria and assessment techniques (cf Cronin, 1981; Wheeler, "1980; Getzels, 1977) . Thus, it would not be surprising to find that the availability of a presumably objective measure of student or program performance might assume a prominent role . in the evaluation of teachr education institutions. There is some evidence that competency test results are already affecting teacher education progams, at least in those institutions where graduates perform poorly on the tests. In response to high failure rates on the Florida test, the Dean of Florida A&M University's School of Education has announced plans t o raise the G. P. A. requirement for adm isSion to the school, require the use of essays in every course, and increase the number of required course hours in thematics and English (Toch, 198 3) . He expects these actions to reduce the school's enrollment from the current 600 to 4 00; a decrease of more than hal f from the 1, 000 students enrolled in 1978 . This move may mean the dif ference between survival and extinction for the program, since state approval in Florida is to be contingent on a pass rate of at least 8 0 percent of each institution's graduates. The Southern Regional Education Board has also announced a new effort to increase the use of analytic test questions in nine A predominately black colleges located in five states that use the NTE. consultant from ETS will work with SREB to revise questions submitted by faculty at the colleges while adding others t o build a pool of 1, 5 00 "analytical questions" for use in course examinations next fall (Aldrich, 1983) . Presumably, the use of such questions will lead to changes in course content as well.

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- 15 Whether the s creening or curricular effects of the tests will lead to improved teacher quality is another question. There are two schools of thought about major influences on the supply of high quality teachers. Weaver (1978; 1979) argues that factors within education are mqst important, that decreased demand for teachers has led to a de cline -in the quality of sUPPly as schools of educations have attempted to This line of maintain enrollments by lowering their standards. reasoning leads one to expect improvement if competency tests raise standards in schools of education. Schlecty and Vance (1981) also note the recent decline in the number of academically able teaching candidates, but they argue that expansion of employment opportunities in other segments of the economy has had the most devastating effect on the quality of supply. Their research questions the utility of two major assumptions underlying efforts to upgrade entrance and exit standards: (1) that teaching is sufficiently attractive to academically able individuals to assure an adequate supply of teachers, and (2) that academically able persons attracted to teaching will remain in the profession. They find that relatively few academically able persons enter teaching, and most of those that do leave the profession within a few years. Thus, they reason, the main result of higher standards (without other changes in the relative attractiveness of the profession) will be a shortage of teacp ers. Cronin (1981) argues similarly that upgrading entry and exit standards may s creen out some candidates without ensuring that more able persons will choose the profession over otner more lucrative f ields marked by less "bureaucratic harassment." While both s chools of thought have some merit, neither addresses the question of whether more "academically able" teachers will be better teachers. Will teachers who have passed a teacher competency test perform better in the classroom than those who have not? A number of studies of the validity of the NTE have been conducted with remarkably similar resUlts. Studies of the concurrent validity of the test--how well it correlates with other measures of academic ability or knowledge- find fairly strong relationship between NTE scores and s cores on other tests such as the Graduate Record Examinations (Pitcher, 1962; Quirk et al. , 1973; Ayers and Qualls, 1979) . More modest but still signi ficant relationships are found between NTE performance and undergraduate course preparation or grade point average (Willson and Stoller, 1981; Quirk et al. , 1973 ; Merritt, 1980; Andrews, Blackmon and Mackey, 1980; Ayers and Qualls, 1979) . [2] However, no studies have found any consistent [2] All of the subtests, however, are not equivalent on measures of concurrent validity. Willson and Stoller (1981) found substantial "criterion-related validity'" for the NTE Hathematics subtest but very little for the Science subtest. Similar dis crepancies between teacher preparation concurrence with various NTE subtests were found in the study of concurrent validi ty conducted for the NTE in South Carolina when the state.' s use of the test was being challenged in court (McDaniel, 1977) .

- 16 rel a tio nship be tween NTE scor es and me asures of teach er performance i n th e classroom . Cor rel a tions be tween NTE scor es and desired teaching behav iors or outcomes are ge ner al ly no nsignificant; nega tive correl a tions occur ne arly as often as posi tive one s (Ay ers a nd Qual l s , 1979 ; Andrew s , Bl ackmo n and Mackey , 1 9 8 0 ; Quirk e t al . , 1 973). Although we do no t propo se to a s se s s th e v al idi ty ∑of teach er compe te ncy tests in this study , we wil l examine perce pti o ns of th e co ncur r e nt a nd pr edi ctive val i dity of th e t e s t s. Th ese perce pti ons a r e impor ta nt f o r two reaso ns. Firs t , t he co ncur r e nt val idity of th e tests- the degree to which th ey me asur e knowledge r el a ted to ac tual teach er pr epa r ation--must be high i f pol icymakers are t o as sume that th e tests meas ur e wha t teachers can be expected to know . Of cour se , if co ncurr ent val i di ty is pe rceived t o be low , th e faul t may lie either with th e test s or wi th th e co nte nt of teacher pr epa r a ti o n . In e i th er case , such perce pti on s woul d h ave important l e gal and pol icy implicati on s . Legal defe nse of th e use of compete ncy t e s t s--e s pecially if th ey produce di s cr epant outcomes for diffe r e nt cl asse s of ap pl icants--rests o n conse nsus , a t l e ast , abo ut co ncur rent val idi ty. [3] Di fficul t pol iti cal resul t s of th e t e s t s , which may r ange from l awsui t s t o sel ective teach er shor tage s , wil l al so be h andl ed more or l e s s e asily depe ndi ng o n perceptio ns o f th eir val i di ty . Perce ptions of predi ctive val idity of th e tests are impor t ant for the abov e reasons, and al so because such pe rce pti o ns may influe nce school di strict hi ring pr act i ce s . If perso nnel di rect ors bel i ev e , based on thei r ow n val idati o n e ffor ts or other f e edback, th at th e tests h av e substantial predictive vali di ty , they may rely heav ily o n appl i cants' scores i n th ei r hiring deCi si o ns. Some distric t s , for exampl e , have used NTE scor es t o r ank t e achers for hiring and have th e n based sal ari es on th e r anki ngs . [4] If , on the o the r h and , the s cores ar e beli ev ed t o have l i t tl e predictive val idity , di stric t s may expand th e i r sel ecti o n cri teri a t o favor o th er measures a nd m ay eve n seek t o hire o n emerge ncy certi ficates ca ndi da tes w ho h ave no t passed the test . Thu s , percepti o ns of th e predictive v al i di ty of th e t e s t s may medi ate th e degree to which the t e s t s i nflue nce di strict sel ecti o n pr act i ce s .

∑.

[3] Gene ral ly , cour t s requi r e th a t tests used for hi ring and promo tion be show n to r el ate di rectly to effec tive job pe r form ance , i . e . , th a t they have pr edi ctive v al i di ty ( Hu f f , 1 974) . How eve r , i n the South Carol ina NTE chall e nge , a less stringe nt t est of co ncurr e nt val i dity was acce pted . The v al i d ati o n study c o nducted by ETS and the S tate Depar tment of Edu ca ti o n aske d over 400 facul ty membe rs of th e 25 state-approv e d t each er educati o n i n sti tut i o ns t o make judgme nts about th e rel a ti o n be tw e e n test co nte nt and the cur riculum and t o make estimates of th e pr o por ti o ns of "minimally knowledge abl e candi dates" who woul d be e xpected to know th e answers t o i n div idual test q ue s tio ns. Cutoff sco r es based o n the r esult s of this e xe r ci se were a do pted by th e state and appr oved by th e cour t (McDa ni el , 1 98 1 ) . [4] This use of NTE s cores was uphel d by th e U . S . Four th Ci rcui t Court of Appe al s i n Newman. Crews i n 1 98 1 .

- 17 Ano ther se t of fac tors influe nce th e supply of te ach ers t o i ndi vidual s chool di stricts and , he nce , the degee t o which they may di rectly experience the supply ef fec t s of compe te ncy t e s t scr eening . These fac t ors i nvol ve th e a ttr ibut e s of th e e xch ange pa ckage unde rl ying th e equi l i brium be tw e e n t each er supply and demand . As Antos and Rosen ( 1 975) e xplain : Labor marke t tr an sactions i nvol ve mu tual , joi nt e xch ange of both l abor se rvi c e s and co nsumpti o n a t tributes at th e workpl ace . Teachers sel l th e servi c e s of th ei r l abor , but simul taneously purch ase util i ty bearing ch aracteristics of th e s chool s i n which they work . On th e other si de of the bargai n , school admini s t r ators purch ase desi red teacher serv ices and Joi n tly sel l ch aract eristi cs of school s and stude nt s t o th ei r teach ers ( Antos a nd Rosen, 1975 , p . 123 ).

Usi ng a h edo ni c w age tech nique to e s timate sal ary di fferenti al s needed t o a ttract teachers t o di fferent ty pes o f di str ict s , researchers h av e foud that s chool di strict char ac t eristics such as ge ogr aph ical loca ti o n , cl imate ,' nei ghborhood and stude nt ch ar acteristi c s , cost of living, class size , and other working co ndi ti ons affect t e acher supply (cf B oardman , Darling-Hammo nd , and Mul l in , 1982; Ke nny and De nslow , Th eor e ti cal ly , i n a state of pe rfe ct 1980; A ntos a nd Rose n , 1975 ). comp e ti t i o n , equl i brium wou l d be ach i eved by sal ari e s being se t to Howeve r , teach ers' sal aries a r e primarily ref lect these f ac t or s . determined by th e mo ney avil able for hi ring new teach ers ( from th e district's pOi nt of view, ano ther l argel y exoge nous co nstr aint) a nd by sal aries offered i n o ther di stric t s ( Matth ew s and Brow n , 1980). Furth ermo r e , because of th e co s t s of informati o n a nd mobil i ty , th e di stri bu t i o n of local l abor m arke ts a c cords mo nopsony p ow er to those di str icts which h av e few geogr aphi cal ly pr oxima te comp e ti t ors , undermini ng the assumption of pe rfe c t compe ti tion ( Boardman , Darl ing-Hammo nd and Mul l in , 1982; Chambe r s , 1981). Fi nal ly , th e rigi di ty of l ocal s ch o ol di s t r i c t pr acti ces--lo ckstep sal ary s ch edul e s , te nure and senior i ty rul e s , and co nst r aint s o n t h e no npe cuni ary adjustme nts tha t can be made t o a t tr act desi r able te ach ers--reduce s the a bi l i ty of th e market to adjust q ui c kl y to ch ange s i n supply or demand , thus e xacerbati ng disequil i brium ( Chambers , 1981). Certain ki nds of s chool distri c t s , then , wil l e xperience shor tages of qual ified t each ers even when the ov e r al l marke t i ndi cates a surpl u s . This wil l affect th e degr e e to which th ey can b e sel ective i n hiring t eachers as w el l as the way s in which th e i r sel ectio n proce sse s must respond to SUPPly ch anges i ndu ce d by effor ts t o upgr ade cer ti fica ti o n Thus , w e wil l inv e s ti ga te th e di fferenti al effec t s o f standards . compe tency testing o n teach er supply in school di stric t s of di fferent type s . Final l y , we reco gnize i n this e ffor t th a t th e i nflue nce s o f a si ngl e pol icy initi ative l ike teacher compe te ncy testi ng must be co nsi dere d i n th e l ight of other pol iti cal , demogr aph ic , and e co nomic .

- 18 factors in e ach state . Al though we wil l not study al l of the rel a tio nships dis cussed , our co nce ptual ap p roach includes these fac t ors as a me ans of tempering our view of th e probl em and of se nsitizing oursel ve s t o other pote ntially impor tant influe nce s o n school of du ca tio n and school distric t behav ior .
RESEARCH DESIGN

Our me thod for examining th e effe c t s of teacher compe te ncy test s o n teach er preparatio n and SUPPly wil l incl ude :
1
∑

Interview s w ith state official s- - legisl ator s , s chool board membe r s , cer tific a tio n commis si o n membe rs , and department of educa tio n official s respo nsibl e for test administr atio n a nd appr ov al of teacher edu cation institutio ns- - t o dis cuss the cr eatio n , o peratio n , and perceived effects of th e testing s tandard. Interview s with accredita tio n and p rogram approv al agency official s about the uses of test r es ul t s in th e a ccr editatio n/ap proval processes. Col lection of da ta from st a te de partme nts of edu ca tion and the Southern Regional . Edu ca tio n Board about the out come s of th e . . tests. Survey s .of teach e r edu ca tio n institutio ns about th e effects of ''''''O Ttifica tio n tests a nd oth e r state pol icy ini tia tives o n curricul um , adm is sion standards , counsel ling , gr ading pol iCie s , retentin , and gr adua tio n pol icies. Tel e ph o ne interviews with sel ected teacher edu ca tio n institutio n of ficial s t o obtain mor e de tailed informatio n about effe c t s mentio ned in th e surv ey respo nse s . Survey s o f school dis tric t s about the effe c t s o f c e r tifica tio n tests o n teach er supply and compo sitio n of the t eaching force .
r ,

2.

3∑

4.

5.

'-

. r .

6.

The study sample wil l co nsist of five (5) s t ate s that cur r e ntly use teacher compe te ncy test s for certi fica tio n. Th ree wil l be s t ate s using the NTE , and two wil l be states using sta te-developed t e s t s . Although we reco gnize th a t ge ne ral izatio n from such a smal l sample mu s t be extremely limited , we bel ieve an inde pth investiga tio n of effec t s in five st a tes can provide useful informatio n about how certific a tion tests inf lue nce educa tio nal or ganizatio ns and why similar and dis simil ar co nseque nces o c cur in different sta tes . Includi ng both NTE a nd state test users in the sample wil l al low us t o examine wheth er th e use of a state-devel o ped test al low s for mor e influe nce o n th e par t of s t ate pol icymake rs or educa tio n organiza tions o n the co nt e nt or out comes of the t e s t . The sample sel e c tion process is de scr ibe d in mor e de tail bel ow .

- 20 commis sio n membe rs , and legisl ators to dis cuss th e creatio n , o pe r atio n, We wil l al so and pe rceived e ffects of th e NTE ce rtification standard. seek to understand the ope ratio n of oth er state pol icies that r el ate to certifica tion of teach ers or accreditatio n/approval of teach er educatio n institutio ns . We will determine wh eth er and how th ese pol icies h ave -affected th e standards for accr edi tatio n o f teach er education institutio ns. In additio n to th e interview s , we wil l col lect data avail abl e in the state s co nce rning testing outcomes--e.g . , perce ntages of pro s pective teach ers who pass th e test by sex , r ace , teacher educati o n in stituti o n , subject matter ar e a, etc . --and information r egarding state uses of th e testing data for decisionmaking . We wil l al so collect demographic data for u se in sampling s chool districts . A s part o f Ph ase 1 w e will visit one school o f educatio n and o ne school district ne ar th e state ca pitol in each state . Th ese v isits will sensitize us to th e issues pe rceived as sal ient by th ese age nci es in e ach state and will help us to refine th e survey questio nnair e s . phase II:
Survey Instrument Deyelopment and

//

1

I ,C

_,

.

FEDAC Review

Following th e planni ng ph ase , we will devel o p two diffe r e nt survey instruments :

(

1.
2.

A questio nnaire to be admini stered to the heads of all teacher educatio n institutio ns in e ach sample state; a nd
-.-" "

A q ue stio nnaire to be administeed to a sampl e of scho ol ,district perso nnel directors in e ach sample state : The survey instruments -wil l be submitted for FEDAC c le ar ance a s described below .

School Qt Educatio n Survey. The teach er education institutio n surv ey wil l seek t o determine ( 1 ) wheth er use of th e NTE a s a state ce rtificatio n standard h as changed admis sio ns standards , counsel ling, grading policie s , curricula , r ete ntio n or gr aduatio n req ui reme nts; and (2) whether th e te sting data is used by coll ege administr ator s in making program decisions. Among th e q uestio ns we wil l ask are th e fol lowing :
o

Hav e sch o ol s of educatio n altered admis sio ns standa rds ? Have they instituted standardized admis sio ns tests or ch anged th e cutof f scores for admis sion? H ave th ey incr eased th e r equired high school or college G PA? H as th e se lection r atio ( numbe r of admis sio ns to numbe r of ap plic ants) ch anged? Have standards for .r etentio n of stu de nts been ch ange d ? Are a greater pe rce ntage of stu de nts "counselle d out"? Have mor e de cisi o n points for r ete ntio n been introduce d ? Have gr ading procedur e s or gr aduatio n r eq uireents ch anged?

o

- 21 -

o

Has the cur riculum changed? Is there a growing correspo nde nce be tween the compe tency test and the curricul um? Hav e co urse requirements ch anged t o emphasize mor e cour sework in th e testing areas? H av e me thods of instructio n or course co ntent changed? Do incr eased academic cour se requireme nts cau se practical edu ca tio n (e . g . , stude nt t each ing ) to be de-emph asized?
Do school s of eductio n use compe te ncy test resul t s as a basis for making o th er program de cisio ns , e . g. , in r ev iewing their instru ctio nal progr ams , admis sio n and r e te ntio n pol icies , gr ading proce dur e s , e tc . ?

o

o

How do school of educa tio n of ficial s pe rceive th e out come s of th e NTE ' s use for certific a tio n? Ar e poor candidates scr e e ned out? Are be t ter candida tes a t tr acted to th e teacher prepar a tio n program? To what e xt e nt do th ey feel th e test h as co ncurr e nt or predictive validity?

School District Survey. The school distric t survey wil l be designed to de te rmine whe th er effec t s of th e compe tency test ce r ti fica tio n standard hav e become v isi bl e a t th e l ocal l ev el . Th e survey instrume nt wil l include th e fol low ing kinds of questions :
o

Have school distric t s e xperie nce d shor tage s of ap pl icants, ei ther'overall or in par ticul ar subje c t areas? If so, do they ttribute these shor tage s to th e test ce rtific a tio n st andard or to other causes? In ge neral , how heavily do t e s t scor e s count in th e hiring de cision? Do some distric t s appl y∑ high er cut o ff scores than the state? At what st age of the sel e ction proce s s ar e test s cores co nside red?
Do school distric t s perceive any differe nce in th e qual ity of

o

o

appl icants or th e compo sitio n of th e appl ic a nt pool since th e institution of th e ce r tificatio n s t a ndard? If s o , what difference s are notic e d? o For school dis tric t s that h av e a ttempted to val ida t e th eir teach er selection proce s se s , how use ful do th ey find th e compe te ncy test as compared to o th er me asures as a pr edic t or of l a ter teach e r performance ? Has the exis t e nce of th e ce r ti fica tio n t e s t ch ange d distric t sel ection pr ocedur e s in other ways ( e . g . , recruitme nt , s cr e ening m e th o d s , e tc . )? Has i t made th e sel ectio n proce s s mor e or l e s s compl ica ted?

o

Sampl ing . Th e school distric t sampl e wil l be sel ected to repr esent diverse demogr aphic ch ar acteristics w ith respect t o size , loca tio n, s tude nt po pula tion, enrol l me nt r e nds , and weal th . In most of

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the s t a te s under co nsi de r a ti o n , th e num be r of s chool distr icts i s smal l , ranging f rom 6 6 in Loui si ana to 152 in Mi s S:i: s si p pi ; o nl y Arka nsas h as as We wil l seek a sampl e of s chool . distr ict s th at many as 373 di str ic t s . serve about 3 0 pe rcent of th e stude nts i n th e sta t e ; and , i n every case , will i ncl u de a t l e ast 3 0 perce nt of th e distr icts in th e s t a t e . On aver age , we will sampl e approximately 5 0 s chool di str icts i n e ach s t ate . Th e sampl e wil l be sel e ct ed t o r epr e s e nt vari ati o ns i n : o Geographi c l o ca tio n : urban, subur ban , and rur al di strict s may face di fferent marke ts for teach ers . Size : smal l , medium , and l arge di str i c t s may have di fferent recr ui tment and sel e cti o n strategi e s a s wel l as needs for compo si tion of th e t each ing force . S tudent po pul a tio n : char acteristics o f pupil po pul ati o ns ( gr ade l evel s se rv ed , s pecial pupil ne eds , r ace , academic ach i evement l evel s ) may affect demand for di ffe r e nt ty pes of teach ers . Enrol lme nt tr e nds : i ncr easi ng or decr easing e nrol lme nts will affec t demand for teacher s . Weal th : poor and rich di stric t s , offer ing differ e nt l evel s of sal ary , may face di fferent pool s of candidates.

o

o

o

o

EEDA¢ Cle arance . The pa c kage pr epared for FEDAC cl e ar ance wil l include a de scripti o n of th e study de si gn , a di s cussi o n of th e sampl ing plan and bi as i s sue s , que stio n ( i tem) justi fic a ti ons , da ta col l ecti o n instrume nts, and privacy , co nfide nti al ity , and r e s po nde nt bur d e n stateme n t s . Th e pa ckage wil l be submitted after i t h as be e n r ev iewed by th e NIE project offi c er and the Committee o n Ev al ua ti o n and Informati o n S y s t ems of th e Council of Chief State S chool Of ficers .
We do not anti ci pate a ny di fficul ty gai ni ng FEDA C ap prov al or ac ce s s t o stu dy respo nde nt s for th i s r esearch . The topi c i s o ne th at has not . y et r eceived exte nsi ve a ttenti o n by rese arch er s , so data col l e c t i o n effor t s will no t dupl i c a t e oth ers bei ng cur r e ntl y undertake n . Que stio nnai res w il l b e shor t t o keep r es po ndent bur de n t o a m inimum . Our past e xperience with el i t e interviews and s urvey s of s chool di s t r i c t s and higher edu ca ti o n i nsti tut i ons indicates a great willingne s s t o coo pe r ate on the part of of fic ial s who pe rceive th e res e arch as a way to make th eir v iews know n o n impor tant i s sue s . Phase III :
Survey Administration and Fol low-up Int e rviewS

Lis t s of te acher edu ca ti o n i nsti tuti ons a nd s chool di strict s ( wi th i nformati o n about th eir demogr aphi c ch ar acteristi cs ) wil l be obtained frcm th e st ate de partme nt s of educa ti o n in e ach of th e sample state s . Th e survey questio nnai r e s wil l b e mailed t o bo th s e t s of respo nde nts a s s o o n a s FEDAC clearance i s obtained .

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In orde r to increase r e s po nse r ates for bo th surv ey s we wil l ( 1 ) send r em inder l e t ters or postcards t o no nr es po nde nts after tw o w e eks; ( 2) send a seco nd mail que stio nnaire and l e tter to r emaining nonr e s po nde nts after four we eks ; a nd ( 3 ) make tel ephone r eminder cal l s to those who h ave no t r e s po nde d af ter si x we eks . We expect th a t th e first two fol low-up activ ities wil l yiel d a r esponse rate of 6 0 to 7 0 perce nt , [ 5 ] and th a t the tel ephone r eminde rs wil l incr ease r e s po nse rates by about 1 0 perce nt . le wil l al so use informatio n o n th e differ e nce s be tween e arl y and l a te r e s po nde nts t∑o hel p co rrect for sel f sel ec tio n bias in th e survey respo nse. [ 6 ] If res po nse r a tes ar e much lower th an an ticipa ted , we can use th e r esour c e s pl anned ∑∑for tel ephone r eminder cal ls to co nduct t el ephone surveys of a subse t of no nr e s po nde nts inst ead . After th e survey resul t s are r eceived , we plan t o co nduct fol low up t el e ph o ne interview s with approximatel y 5 0 school of educa tio n de ans to discuss in mor e de tail respo nse s indicating t each er pr eparatio n changes cau sed by the compe tency t e s t s . The se interv iew s wil.l al low us a nd more ful l y how such ch ange s h av e oc curred and how they are t o unde rst linked to the te s t s or to oth er state pol icy initiativ e s . phase IV :
Analysia

Th e survey resul t s w il l be coded for comput er anal ysis and will be a nal y ze d , as a p pr o priate , using anal ysis ' of v ariance and chi squar e tests of s t a tistical significance . Both intr astate and cross-st a te anal y se s w ill be co nducted . Th e depe nde nt var iabl e s w il l be r e por ted change s in t e ach er prepar atio n and t e ach er suppl y ; indepe ndent variabl es will be ch ar ac t eris ti cs o f teacher educa tio n institutions and s chool district s . Cr oss-state a naly ses w il l incl ude , state demographic ch aracteristics and characteris tics of the state pol icy t ool s as i ndepe nde nt v a riables as w el l . -----'___ _

Th e q uantitative anal ysis of th e two surveys w il l be combi ned with th e results of the s t ate-level interv iew s , sel ected interv iew s with local officials , and avail abl e state da ta to produce a repor t th at a s se s ses the effec t s o f th e teacher compe tency certifica tio n s t a nda rd as i t o pe r ates in individual states and , mor e ge neral l y , in th e group of states tha t h av e ado pted this pol ic y tool . The r epor t w il l examine th e change s in t e ach er sel ection a nd preparatio n r epor ted by s cho ol s of edu ca tion and s chool distric t s .

[ 5 ] Al though mail surv eys t e nd t o h av e l owe r r e s po nse r ates th an telephone surv ey s , a nearl y ide ntical ap proach used in R and ' s Study of Alternatiyes in Edu ca ti o n resul ted i n a 7 3 perc e nt compl e ti o n r ate after a si ngl e foll ow-up (Bridge and B l ackman , 1 97 8 , p . 26 ) . [ 6 ] A numbe r of techniques ar e av ail abl e for adjusting for this t ype of bias . S e e , for exampl e , Bridge ( 1 97 4 ) and B r idge and B l ackman ( 1978 ) . .

- 2 lJ -

In our asse ssments of th e effect s of state pol icie s , we h av e dis cov ered t h a t diffe rent a c t or s use diffe rent criteria atid s t andards of ev ide nce to judge pol icy effec t s a nd r each different co nclusio ns about pOlicy ef fect s . Some may use pol itical or symbol ic criteria whereas o thrs use me asur abl e outcome cr iteria. Some may rely upo n casual observatio n for th eir co nclusions whereas o th ers r ely upo n dis cipl ine d i nquiry . In r eaching co ncl usi o ns about pol icy efficacy , some may pay attentio n o nl y t o inte nde d pol icy effec t s , whereas o thers pay a t t e ntio n t o uni n t e nde d a nd cumul a tive pol icy effect s as wel l . We Wil l , in this study of th e impact of teacher testing , a s se s s the pol icy effe c ts from a varie ty of pe r s pe c tives . ORG ANIZ ATION AND MANAGEHENT PLAN Direction and Respo nsi bilities The study wil l have as co-principal inve stiga tors Ar thur E. Wise and Linda Darl ing-Hammo nd o f Rand ' s Washing t o n Office . They hav be e n working t oge th e r for sev eral y e ars o n a numbe r of project s , have co-authored sev e r al pape rs a nd are cur r e ntly in th e pro ce s s o f pr eparing . two book-length manuscript s . Th rough cl o se col l abor atio n they hav e evol ved a unified intel l e c tual approach t o th e study of te achers a nd teaching , o ne th a t th ey bring t o this study . They ar e membe rs of Rand ' s Educa tio n and Human R e sour ces Program, directed by Richard Shavel so n who i s al so a n e xpe r t in re s e arch on t e aching . Darl ing-Hammo nd and Wise wil l sh ar e r espo nsibil ity for co nce ptual izing the study , sel e c t ing the f ive states a nd v isi ting them , interv iewing s t a t e of ficial s and s chool of edu ca tion official s , a nd preparing - a r epo t o n th e interv iew s . Based u po n writ t e n informa tio n gath ered during the v isit s and informatio n de rived from the initial interv iew s , they wil l dev ise th e survey questions. Je nnifer Haw e s , who h as served as a survey manager o n numerous She wil l coll abor ate with th e proj e ct s , wil l manage th e two survey s . co-principal inv e s tiga t or s o n surv ey devel o pme n t , wil l superv ise prepar atio n a nd adminis t r atio n of the instrume nts as wel l as al l fo1 1ow up t o no nr esponde n t s , and w il l code the d a t a for comput er e ntry . The final repo r t wil l be authored by Darl ing-Hammond and Wise who wil l combine th e know ledge de rived from the l iter atur e r eview , from the state v iSit s , and from th e sur v ey re sul t s into a repor t which wil l as se ss the impa c t of teach er compe te ncy te s ting o n school s of educa tio n , s chool dis tric t s , t e ach e r suppl y , and t e acher q ual ity .
Staff Time Commitment

The proj e c t e d s t aff commitment is as fol lows :

- 25 -

Staff Membe A. Wise L. Darling-Hammond R . Shavelson J. Hawes S urvey Suppor t Secre tari al Sup por t
Schedule

Per s on Days

70 70
5

50 76
48

Th e project i s s ch edul ed for 1 5 mo nths and i ncl udes a four-mo nth wai ting period for FEDAC r evi ew :

S chedul e Year 1 .l'.Q. Compl e ted D.Y. Phase 1 : Pl anning a nd Col lection of Backgr o und Informati o n Literatur e r ev i ew and si t e sel e ction Site visi ts and i nte rview s Phase 2 : S ur vey Instrume nt Devel o pment Desi gn of s urvey FEDAC clearance packa ge s ubmit ted FEDAC clear ance package appr ove d Phase 3 : S urvey of School s o f Ed uca tio n a nd S chool Di stric t s Conduct of s urvey Interview s wi th school of ed uca ti o n de ans Phase 4 : Anal ysis and Repor t Preparati o n Comput e r anal y si s Draft repor t Final repor t Oualifica tions of Staf f Art.hur . is a n e d uca tio nal rese archer and s e nior soci al s ci e ntist a t Rand. He , wi th th e assistance of Linda Darl ing- Hammo nd and Milbr ey McLaughl i n , i s cur r e ntly compl e ti ng a st udy of teach er eval ua ti o n pr actices. Th at study is an asse s sment of th e effec t s of teach er eval ua tion pr ac ti ces in four s chool di stric t s . I n addi ti on, he a nd Darl ing-Hammo nd are compl e ti ng a study of t each ers and e d uca ti o nal The study , based o n i n-de pth interv iew s , is an investiga ti o n pol i c i e s . o f how teachers' work i s bei ng al t ered by federal , state , a nd l o cal pol i ci es. He r ece ntly author ed Legi sl a ted Learp ng, a book co nce rned with polici e s de si gned to upgr ade th e q ual i ty of te ach i ng i n cl assrooms .

Month 1 Month 2

Month 3 Mo nth 4 Mo nth 8

Mo nth 1 0 Mo nth 1 0

Month 1 1 Month 1. 3 Mo nth 1 5

- 26 -

He is a freq ue nt lectur e r and worksh o p l e ade r at co nfer e nce s spo nsored by such organizations as N E A , NSB A , AAS A , and ASC D, and thei r state af fil i ate s . He has be e n a n educati o n school facul ty membe r and admini str ator and a fede r al offici al co nce r ned with r ese arch o n - teach ing . Li nda Da rl ing-Hammo nd , an e ducatio nal rese archer and soci al sci e ntist at Rand , is co-princi pal inv esti gator of th e study of te achers and educati o nal pol icy . In additi o n to he r extensive i nvol vement with the Teach er Eval uati o n Stu dy , sh e h as co nducted a stu dy of th e supply of and de mand for teacher s . She was pr i nci pal inv e sti gator for a r ece ntly compl eted study of state admini str ative r e s po nse s to fede r al educati o n blo ck gra nts a nd co-pr inci pal inv e stigator f o r a study o f th e impact on state a nd l ocal gov ernments of fede r al regul atory prov isi ons i n categorical educa ti o n programs . Befor e joi ni ng R and , she was di rector of rese arch on urban e ducati o n for th e N ati o nal Urban Co al iti o n , wher e Sh e sh e co nducted stu di e s of urban school programs and school finance. h as al so been a cl assr oom teach er and a n e duca ti o n school facul ty member .
Jenni fer Hawe s has be e n a survey research s peci alist at th e R and Corpo r ati o n for 1 0 years . Sh e h as be e n i nvol ved i n al l as pects of surve y rese arch from instrume nt d e si gn to data a nalysi s . She h as be e n the manager Q f five surveys i n the areas o f empl oy me nt , mil itary manpow e r , educa ti on, and tr aini ng . FACILITIES AND ARRANGEMENTS

Facil i ties
A de scr ipti o n of th e rese arch f aci l iti e s of th e R a nd Corpor ati o n is appe nde d to this proposa l . Of parti cul ar i mportance to the proposed proje ct are the services of two groups .

Th e Survey Research G roup is r e s po nsi bl e for coordi nati ng R and survey activ iti es a nd provi di ng technical service s to Rand staf f member s who se work r equi res pri mary data col lecti o n tech ni que s . Th e group comprises about 1 5 staf f membe r s , incl udi ng survey rese arch prof e s si o nal s and t echni cal support staf f . Th e professi o nal staff hol d aca de mic degrees w hich s pa n sev e r al beh avio r al sci e nce di sci pl ine s . They h ave h ad e xperi e nce with academic and marke t r ese arch surv e y s as wel l as a vari ety of l arge a nd smal l survey s co nduct ed for R and r ese arch proje c t s . T h e Rand Stati sti cal Rese arch and Co nsul ting G roup was e stabl ish ed i n 1976 and cur r e ntl y co nsi ts of si x s t a ti stici ans . Its objective is t o e nh ance th e q ual ity of Rand r e se arch b y making stati stical expertise e asil y avail abl e to all me mbers of the r esearch s t af f . Dur ing the si x years of i t s eXi s t e nce , the co nsulting service h as be e n heav il y used by the staff. Ty pical l y , th e G roup f i el ds questi on s r el ated to data analy sis , th e oretical or appl ied stati stic s , probabil ity model ing , and s ta ti s tical computi ng , while th e a p pl ic a ti o ns r ange from mil itar y manpowe r problems t o pr edi cti ng stude nt pe rform ance . Th e areas of stati sti cal exp e rti s e of th e s t ati s tici ans i n the group ar e numerou s .

' .

- 27 -

Rand ' s comput e r faci l i ti es and o ther suppor t serv ic e s ar e de s cribed i n the Appe ndi x t o th is propo sal . Arrangements for Da ta Col lection We do no t anti ci pa te great di fficul ty in obt aini ng the coope r ati o n of respo ndent s . The i nformati o n which w e seek i s not se nsi ti ve ; a n d i n simil a r studi e s i n th e rece nt past we h ave no t e ncountered di fficul ty i n gaini ng a c ce s s . Interyiew s St ate-level Actors . As noted i n th e body of th e propo sal , we wil l interv iew state l egi sl a t ors , s t ate department of edu ca ti o n offici al s , state s chool board membe r s , and certi fic a ti o n commissi o n mem be r s . Our goal i s t o unde rst and th e origi n a n d p ur po se of Some th e compe te ncy test and th e co ntext wi thi n which i t ope r a te s . i nforma ti o n wil l be obt ained from records in th e publ ic domai n , and no parti cul a r state-level offici al ' s parti cipati o n is indi s pe nsi bl e . However , i n other Rand studi es w e have encountered l i t tl e di fficul ty in gai ni ng a c ce s s t o high l evel state offici al s . W e have found th at government official s and educa tors are wil ling t o prov ide us with i nformati o n when they feel th ey can make a co ntri bution t o publ ic under sta ndi ng o f an impor t ant i s sue , and when--in turn--we can provide them with i nformati o n about effor t s in o th er s t a t e s . In addi ti o n t o good prel iminary preparati o n befor e we co nduct o n- si t e i nt erv iew s , which minimiz e s r es po ndent bur de n by focusi ng our da ta requi r eme nt s , we al way s make certai n th a t e ach study r e s po nde nt r ecei ves a co py of our dr af t ' a nd final repor t s . Thus we e nsur e th at r e s po nde nts wil l personal ly benefit from the rese arch . Sch oOl Di s t rict Que stionnaires . As no ted , we pl an t o mail Th e que stio nnai res to a sampl e of s chool di s tr i c t s in e ach state. que stio nnaire a nd any nece s sa ry fol low-up t el ephoni ng wil l b e addr essed In a r ecent study o f teach er to the district s ' di rec t ors of perso nnel . eval uati o n pr acti c e s , we e ncounte r ed l i t tl e di fficul ty in obtaining i nformati o n from di rector s of perso nnel in 32 s chool di stric t s about their teach er ev al ua ti o n system s . Our expe rience h as be en th at s chool system pe rso nnel are r ar el y asked for th ei r views and ar e g e ne r al ly wil ling t o share i nformati o n . School Q[ Edu ca tio n Que s tionnai res . We wil l di stribute a questio nnai re t o al l deans of school s of edu ca ti o n in e ach s t a te . Al though we h ave hael no expe r i e nce obt aini ng i nformati on from sch.ool s of edu ca ti o n , we a s sume th a t th ey wil l cooperate . Ch anges in school s of edu cation h av e not been exte nsively studi ed ; thus , th e pr obl em of data request ov erl oad wil l not exi s t . Mor e ov e r , deans are l ikely to h ave strong o pi ni o ns about the teacher compe te ncy t e s t s and wil l be l ikely to want t o sh are thei r view s . This mo tivati o n we h ave found t o be a powe rful ince ntive for coo pe rati o n i n simil ar da ta col lection activiti e s .

"

- 28 -

I n past r ese arch we h ave , when neces sary , obtai ned th e e ndorsement of rel evant W ash ingt on-based educa ti o n as soci a ti o ns as a means of promoti ng coope ra ti o n i n our studi e s . We are co nfident th a t we can obtain such e ndorsement for th is impor tant study .
Plan for Dissemination

The findi ngs of th is stu dy wil l l ikel y be of interest to a wide vari e ty o f audi e nce s--pol icymake rs who ar e co nsi de ring the impleme ntation of teach er certi fic a ti o n st andar ds ; school of educa ti o n perSO nnel who mu st adapt t o t h e st anda rds ; s chool di stric t perso nnel who expe ri e nce th e co nseq uences of th e st andar ds ; r e se archers who a r e studying school s of educa tio n ; and th e ge ne r al publ ic which i s co ncerned wi th th e q ual i ty of teachers . Our dis sem ina ti o n pr ac tices and strategi e s wil l e n sur e th a t th ese findi ngs reach al l of th ese audi e nce s . The first product of th e r e se arch wil l be a Rand Report which wil l be sent t o t he r egul ar recipi ent s of Rand Educa tio n R epor ts a nd a Th e spec i al l i s t t o be dev ised by the pr i nci pal inv e stiga tors and N IE . Rand Publ ic I nformati o n Office will i s sue a press r el ease , and , i f th e findi ngs warr ant , arr ange for a pr ess co nf e r e nce . Th e pri nci pal inve sti ga tors w il l al so publ ish arti cl e s i n edu ca ti onal pe riodical s and m agazi nes a nd de l iver pape rs a t co nfer e nce s attended by edu ca t ors , rese arch e r s , and pol icymake r s . Th e se activ iti es lead to the broad di s semina ti o n of rese arch findi ngs not only in the edu ca tional communi ty , but al so in th e g e ne r al communi ty . It i.s w or th noti ng th a t very li fjtl e r e se arch h as be e n co nduct ed o n ' the impac t of pol icy o n school s of educa ti o n or of th e impac t of school s Al though this of edu ca ti o n o n t e ach er q ual i ty and t e ach i ng pol ici e s . ar ch i s focused o n the impac t of a speci fic pol icy , we hope through rese our di s semina tio n activ iti e s t o e ncour age r ese archers t o hel p il luminate one of th e major de terminan t s of th e q ual i ty of Ame r ican educa ti o n.

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Th e Nor th Carol i na Ce nt er for Pu b l i c

Pol i cy

Rese arch ,

1 982.

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